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                      Sumerian Mythology FAQ (Version 2.0html)
                                          
   by Christopher Siren, 1992, 1994, 2000
   
   cbsiren@hopper.unh.edu
   
   This FAQ used to be posted on the third of every month to alt.mythology. An
   older text copy of this FAQ is available via anonymous ftp pending
   *.answers approval at:
   
   rtfm.mit.edu at /pub/usenet/news.answers/mythology/sumer-faq
   
   last changes: July 27, 2000: complete revision including incorporating
   Kramer's Sumerian Mythology and Black & Green's God's Demons and Symbols of
   Ancient Mesopotamia. Added more citations of sources.
   July 19, 1999: modified first sentance to include hints of civilization
   prior to and outside of Sumer
   September 20, 1998: fleshed out the Gilgamesh entry
   July 3, 1998: added a couple of Lilith links to Renee Rosen's and Alan
   Humm's sites.
   August 13, 1997: added much more historical introductory material.
   March 20, 1996: cleaned up some misleading references to Kur.
   March 1, 1996: added the reference to Adapa's dictionary.
   Feb 3, 1996: fixed a formatting problem in the sources area and added the
   full title "Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Underworld" to the Biblical ref's
   section.
   Nov 13, 1995: fixed a couple of problems with some internal links.
   Nov 2, 1995: added some short notes about the primary deities, Ninhursag,
   and the Dilmun/Eden parallel to clarify some issues.
   October 6th, 1995: added a link to the "dictionary" and brief reviews of
   the sources and other relevant books.
   September 1995: moved page to pubpages server
   March 25th 1995: header of Usenet version reformatted for *.answers;
   changed URL to home address; small changes to Inanna & Dumuzi
   
   Adapa (Dan Sullivan) has constructed a more complete Sumerian-English
   dictionary at:
   http://home.earthlink.net/~duranki/index1.html#dict (Restored! 5/13/99)
   John Halloran has a Sumerian Language Page at:
   http://www.sumerian.org/
   
   I have constructed a rudimentary Sumerian-English, English Sumerian
   glossary using Kramer's The Sumerians and Jacobsen's Treasures of
   Darkness, although parties interested in the Sumerian language may be
   better served at the prior two pages. note: This FAQ is partly based on an
   anthropology paper which I wrote in 1992, using some of the sources
   detailed below.
   
Contents:

     * I. History and Overview
     * II. What do we know about Sumerian Cosmology?
     * III. What Deities did they worship?
          + A. The Four Primary Dieties
          + B. The Seven who decreed fate
          + C. The Annuna and others
          + D. The Demigods, mortal Heroes and Monsters
     * IV. What about the Underworld?
     * V. What are me anyway?
     * VI. I've heard that there are a lot of Biblical parallels in Sumerian
       literature. What are they?
     * VII. Source material
     * VIII. Other books of interest.
       
I. History and Overview -

   Sumer may very well be the first civilization in the world (although long
   term settlements at Jericho and Çatal Hüyük predate Sumer and examples of
   writing from Egypt and the Harappa, Indus valley sites may predate those
   from Sumer). From its beginnings as a collection of farming villages around
   5000 BCE, through its conquest by Sargon of Agade around 2370 BCE and its
   final collapse under the Amorites around 2000 BCE, the Sumerians developed
   a religion and a society which influenced both their neighbors and their
   conquerors. Sumerian cuneiform, the earliest written language, was borrowed
   by the Babylonians, who also took many of their religious beliefs. In fact,
   traces and parallels of Sumerian myth can be found in Genesis.
   
    History
    
   Sumer was a collection of city states around the Lower Tigris and Euphrates
   rivers in what is now southern Iraq. Each of these cities had individual
   rulers, although as early as the mid-fourth millennium BCE the leader of
   the dominant city could have been considered the king of the region. The
   history of Sumer tends to be divided into five periods. They are the Uruk
   period, which saw the dominance of the city of that same name, the Jemdat
   Nasr period, the Early Dynastic periods, the Agade period, and the Ur III
   period - the entire span lasting from 3800 BCE to around 2000 BCE. In
   addition, there is evidence of the Sumerians in the area both prior to the
   Uruk period and after the Ur III Dynastic period, but relatively little is
   known about the former age and the latter time period is most heavily
   dominated by the Babylonians.
   
   The Uruk period, stretched from 3800 BCE to 3200 BCE. It is to this era
   that the Sumerian King Lists ascribe the reigns of Dumuzi the shepherd, and
   the other antediluvian kings. After his reign Dumuzi was worshipped as the
   god of the spring grains. This time saw an enormous growth in urbanization
   such that Uruk probably had a population around 45,000 at the period's end.
   It was easily the largest city in the area, although the older cities of
   Eridu to the south and Kish to the north may have rivaled it. Irrigation
   improvements as well as a supply of raw materials for craftsmen provided an
   impetus for this growth. In fact, the city of An and Inanna also seems to
   have been at the heart of a trade network which stretched from what is now
   southern Turkey to what is now eastern Iran. In addition people were drawn
   to the city by the great temples there.
   
   The Eanna of Uruk, a collection of temples dedicated to Inanna, was
   constructed at this time and bore many mosaics and frescoes. These
   buildings served civic as well as religious purposes, which was fitting as
   the en, or high priest, served as both the spiritual and temporal leader.
   The temples were places where craftsmen would practice their trades and
   where surplus food would be stored and distributed.
   
   The Jemdat Nasr period lasted from 3200 BCE to 2900 BCE. It was not
   particularly remarkable and most adequately described as an extension and
   slowing down of the Uruk period. This is the period during which the great
   flood is supposed to have taken place. The Sumerians' account of the flood
   may have been based on a flooding of the Tigris, Euphrates, or both rivers
   onto their already marshy country.
   
   The Early Dynastic period ran from 2900 BCE to 2370 BCE and it is this
   period for which we begin to have more reliable written accounts although
   some of the great kings of this era later evolved mythic tales about them
   and were deified. Kingship moved about 100 miles upriver and about 50 miles
   south of modern Bahgdad to the city of Kish. One of the earlier kings in
   Kish was Etana who "stabilized all the lands" securing the First Dynasty of
   Kish and establishing rule over Sumer and some of its neighbors. Etana was
   later believed by the Babylonians to have rode to heaven on the back of a
   giant Eagle so that he could receive the "plant of birth" from Ishtar
   (their version of Inanna) and thereby produce an heir.
   
   Meanwhile, in the south, the Dynasty of Erech was founded by Meskiaggasher,
   who, along with his successors, was termed the "son of Utu", the sun-god.
   Following three other kings, including another Dumuzi, the famous Gilgamesh
   took the throne of Erech around 2600 BCE and became in volved in a power
   struggle for the region with the Kish Dynasts and with Mesannepadda, the
   founder of the Dynasty of Ur. While Gilgamesh became a demi-god, remembered
   in epic tales, it was Mesannepadda who was eventually victorious in this
   three-way power struggle, taking the by then traditional title of "King of
   Kish".
   
   Although the dynasties of Kish and Erech fell by the wayside, Ur could not
   retain a strong hold over all of Sumer. The entire region was weakened by
   the struggle and individual city-states continued more or less independent
   rule. The rulers of Lagash declared themselves "Kings of Kish" around 2450
   BCE, but failed to seriously control the region, facing several military
   challenges by the nearby Umma. Lugalzagesi, ensi or priest-king of Umma
   from around 2360-2335 BCE, razed Lagash, and conquered Sumer, declaring
   himself "king of Erech and the Land". Unfortunately for him, all of this
   strife made Sumer ripe for conquest by an outsider and Sargon of Agade
   seized that opportunity.
   
   Sargon united both Sumer and the northern region of Akkad - from which
   Babylon would arise about four hundred years later - not very far from
   Kish. Evidence is sketchy, but he may have extended his realm from the
   Medeterranian Sea to the Indus River. This unity would survive its founder
   by less than 40 years. He built the city of Agade and established an
   enormous court there and he had a new temple erected in Nippur. Trade from
   across his new empire and beyond swelled the city, making it the center of
   world culture for a brief time.
   
   After Sargon's death, however, the empire was fraught with rebellion.
   Naram-Sin, Sargon's grandson and third successor, quelled the rebellions
   through a series of military successes, extending his realm. He declared
   himself 'King of the Four corners of the World' and had himself deified.
   His divine powers must have failed him as the Guti, a mountain people,
   razed Agade and deposed Naram-Sin, ending that dynasty.
   
   After a few decades, the Guti presence became intolerable for the Sumerian
   leaders. Utuhegal of Uruk/Erech rallied a coalition army and ousted them.
   One of his lieutenants, Ur-Nammu, usurped his rule and established the
   third Ur dynasty around 2112 BCE. He consolidated his control by defeating
   a rival dynast in Lagash and soon gained control of all of the Sumerian
   city-states. He established the earliest known recorded law-codes and had
   constructed the great ziggurat of Ur, a kind of step-pyramid which stood
   over 60' tall and more than 200' wide. For the next century the Sumerians
   were extremely prosperous, but their society collapsed around 2000 BCE
   under the invading Amorites. A couple of city-states maintained their
   independence for a short while, but soon they and the rest of the Sumerians
   were absorbed into the rising empire of the Babylonians. (Crawford pp.
   1-28; Kramer 1963 pp. 40-72)
   
    Culture
    
   Seated along the Euphrates River, Sumer had a thriving agriculture and
   trade industry. Herds of sheep and goats and farms of grains and vegetables
   were held both by the temples and private citizens. Ships plied up and down
   the river and throughout the Persian gulf, carrying pottery and various
   processed goods and bringing back fruits and various raw materials from
   across the region, including cedars from the Levant.
   
   Sumer was one of the first literate civilizations leaving many records of
   business transactions, and lessons from schools. They had strong armies,
   which with their chariots and phalanxes held sway over their less civilized
   neighbors (Kramer 1963, p. 74). Perhaps the most lasting cultural remnants
   of the Sumerians though, can be found in their religion.
   
    Religion
    
   The religion of the ancient Sumerians has left its mark on the entire
   middle east. Not only are its temples and ziggurats scattered about the
   region, but the literature, cosmogony and rituals influenced their
   neighbors to such an extent that we can see echoes of Sumer in the
   Judeo-Christian-Islamic tradition today. From these ancient temples, and to
   a greater extent, through cuneiform writings of hymns, myths, lamentations,
   and incantations, archaeologists and mythographers afford the modern reader
   a glimpse into the religious world of the Sumerians.
   
   Each city housed a temple that was the seat of a major god in the Sumerian
   pantheon, as the gods controlled the powerful forces which often dictated a
   human's fate. The city leaders had a duty to please the town's patron
   deity, not only for the good will of that god or goddess, but also for the
   good will of the other deities in the council of gods. The priesthood
   initially held this role, and even after secular kings ascended to power,
   the clergy still held great authority through the interpretation of omens
   and dreams. Many of the secular kings claimed divine right; Sargon of
   Agade, for example claimed to have been chosen by Ishtar/Inanna. (Crawford
   1991: 21-24)
   
   The rectangular central shrine of the temple, known as a 'cella,' had a
   brick altar or offering table in front of a statue of the temple's deity.
   The cella was lined on its long ends by many rooms for priests and
   priestesses. These mud-brick buildings were decorated with cone geometrical
   mosaics, and the occasional fresco with human and animal figures. These
   temple complexes eventually evolved into towering ziggurats. (Wolkstein &
   Kramer 1983: 119)
   
   The temple was staffed by priests, priestesses, musicians, singers,
   castrates and hierodules. Various public rituals, food sacrifices, and
   libations took place there on a daily basis. There were monthly feasts and
   annual, New Year celebrations. During the later, the king would be married
   to Inanna as the resurrected fertility god Dumuzi, whose exploits are dealt
   with below.
   
   When it came to more private matters, a Sumerian remained devout. Although
   the gods preferred justice and mercy, they had also created evil and
   misfortune. A Sumerian had little that he could do about it. Judging from
   Lamentation records, the best one could do in times of duress would be to
   "plead, lament and wail, tearfully confessing his sins and failings." Their
   family god or city god might intervene on their behalf, but that would not
   necessarily happen. After all, man was created as a broken, labor saving,
   tool for the use of the gods and at the end of everyone's life, lay the
   underworld, a generally dreary place. (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983: pp.123-124)
   
II. What do we know about Sumerian Cosmology?

   From verses scattered throughout hymns and myths, one can compile a picture
   of the universe's (anki) creation according to the Sumerians. The primeval
   sea (abzu) existed before anything else and within that, the heaven (an)
   and the earth (ki) were formed. The boundary between heaven and earth was a
   solid (perhaps tin) vault, and the earth was a flat disk. Within the vault
   lay the gas-like 'lil', or atmosphere, the brighter portions therein formed
   the stars, planets, sun, and moon. (Kramer, The Sumerians 1963: pp.
   112-113) Each of the four major Sumerian deities is associated with one of
   these regions. An, god of heaven, may have been the main god of the
   pantheon prior to 2500 BC., although his importance gradually waned.
   (Kramer 1963 p. 118) Ki is likely to be the original name of the earth
   goddess, whose name more often appears as Ninhursag (queen of the
   mountains), Ninmah (the exalted lady), or Nintu (the lady who gave birth).
   It seems likely that these two were the progenitors of most of the gods.
   
   According to "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld", in the first days
   all needed things were created. Heaven and earth were separated. An took
   Heaven, Enlil took the earth, Ereshkigal was carried off to the netherworld
   as a prize, and Enki sailed off after her.
   
III. What Deities did they worship?

   Nammu
          Nammu is the Goddess of the watery abyss, the primeval sea. She may
          be the earliest of deities within Sumerian cosmology as she gave
          birth to heaven and earth. (Kramer 1961 p. 39) She is elsewhere
          described both as the mother of all the gods and as the wife of An.
          (Kramer 1961 p. 114) She is Enki's mother. She prompts him to create
          servants for the gods and is then directed by him on how, with the
          help of Nimmah/Ninhursag to create man. (Kramer 1963 p. 150; Kramer
          1961 p. 70)
          
  A. The Primary Deities
  
   It is notable that the Sumerians themselves may not have grouped these four
   as a set and that the grouping has been made because of the observations of
   Sumerologists.
   
   An
          An, god of heaven, may have been the main god of the pantheon prior
          to 2500 BC., although his importance gradually waned. (Kramer 1963
          p. 118) In the early days he carried off heaven, while Enlil carried
          away the earth. (Kramer 1961 p. 37-39) It seems likely that he and
          Ki/Ninhursag were the progenitors of most of the gods. although in
          one place Nammu is listed as his wife. (Kramer 1961 p. 114) Among
          his children and followers were the Anunnaki. (Kramer 1961 p. 53)
          His primary temple was in Erech. He and Enlil give various gods,
          goddesses, and kings their earthly regions of influence and their
          laws. (Kramer 1963 p. 124) Enki seats him at the first seat of the
          table in Nippur at the feast celebrating his new house in Eridu.
          (Kramer 1961 p. 63) He hears Inanna's complaint about Mount Ebih
          (Kur?), but discourages her from attacking it because of its
          fearsome power. (Kramer 1961 pp. 82-83) After the flood, he and
          Enlil make Ziusudra immortal and make him live in Dilmun. (Kramer
          1961 p. 98) (See also Anu.)
          
   Ninhursag (Ki, Ninmah, Nintu)
          Ki is likely to be the original name of the earth goddess, whose
          name more often appears as Ninhursag (queen of the mountains),
          Ninmah (the exalted lady), or Nintu (the lady who gave birth).
          (Kramer 1963 p. 122) Most often she is considered Enlil's sister,
          but in some traditions she is his spouse instead. (Jacobsen p.105)
          She was born, possibly as a unified cosmic mountain with An, from
          Nammu and shortly thereafter, their union produced Enlil. (Kramer
          1961 p. 74) In the early days, as Ki, she was separated from heaven
          (An) and carried off by Enlil. (Kramer 1961 pp. 37-41) It seems
          likely that she and An were the progenitors of most of the gods. She
          later unites with Enlil and with the assistance of Enki they produce
          the world's plant and animal life. (Kramer 1961 p. 75)
          
          "Enki and Ninhursag"
          In Dilmun, she (as Nintu) bears the goddess Ninsar from Enki, who in
          turn bears the goddess Ninkur, who in turn bears Uttu, goddess of
          plants. Uttu bore eight new trees from Enki. When he then ate Uttu's
          children, Ninhursag cursed him with eight wounds and dissapears.
          After being persuaded by Enlil to undo her curse, she bore Enki
          eight new children which undid the wounds of the first ones. (Kramer
          1963 pp. 147-149; Kramer 1961 pp. 54-59)
          
          Enki seats her (as Nintu) on the big side of the table in Nippur at
          the feast celebrating his new house in Eridu. (Kramer 1961 p. 63)
          
          "Enki and Ninmah"
          She is the mother goddess and, as Ninmah, assists in the creation of
          man. Enki, having been propted by Nammu to create servants for the
          gods, describes how Nammu and Ninmah will help fashion man from
          clay. Prior to getting to work, she and Enki drink overmuch at a
          feast. She then shapes six flawed versions of man from the heart of
          the clay over the Abzu, with Enki declaring their fates. Enki, in
          turn also creates a flawed man which is unable to eat. Ninmah
          appears to curse him for the failed effort. (Kramer 1963 pp.
          149-151; Kramer 1961 pp. 69-72)
          (See also Aruru)
          
   Enlil
          An and Ki's union produced Enlil (Lord of 'lil'). Enlil was the
          air-god and leader of the pantheon from at least 2500 BC, when his
          temple Ekur in Nippur was the spiritual center of Sumer (Kramer 1961
          p. 47). In the early days he separated and carried off the earth
          (Ki) while An carried off heaven. (Kramer 1961 p. 37-41) He assumed
          most of An's powers. He is glorified as "'the father of the gods,
          'the king of heaven and earth,' ' the king of all the lands'".
          Kramer portrays him as a patriarchal figure, who is both creator and
          disciplinarian. Enlil causes the dawn, the growth of plants, and
          bounty (Kramer 1961 p. 42). He also invents agricultural tools such
          as the plow or pickaxe (Kramer 1961 pp 47-49). Without his
          blessings, a city would not rise (Kramer 1961 pp. 63, 80) Most often
          he is considered Ninlil's husband, with Ninhursag as his sister, but
          some traditions have Ninhursag as his spouse. (Jacobsen p.105)
          "Enlil and Ninlil"
          He is also banished to the nether world (kur) for his rape of
          Ninlil, his intended bride, but returns with the first product of
          their union, the moon god Sin (also known as Nanna). (Kramer,
          Sumerians 1963: pp.145-147). Ninlil follows him into exile as his
          wife. He tells the various underworld guardians to not reveal his
          whereabouts and instead poses as those guardians himself three
          times, each time impregnating her again it appears that at least on
          one occasion Enlil reveals his true self before they unite. The
          products of these unions are three underworld deities, including
          Meslamtaea (aka. Nergal) and Ninazu. Later, when Nanna visits him in
          Nippur, he bestows Ur to him with a palace and plentiful plantlife.
          (Kramer 1961 p. 43-49) Enlil is also seen as the father of Ninurta
          (Kramer 1961 p. 80).
          
          "Enki and Eridu"
          When Enki journeys to Enlil's city Nippur in order for his own city,
          Eridu to be blessed. He is given bread at Enki's feast and is seated
          next to An, after which Enlil proclaims that the Anunnaki should
          praise Enki. (Kramer 1961 pp. 62-63)
          
          "The Dispute between Cattle and Grain"
          Enlil and Enki, at Enki's urging, create farms and fields for the
          grain goddess Ashnan and the cattle goddess Lahar. This area has
          places for Lahar to take care of the animals and Ashnan to grow the
          crops. The two agricultural deities get drunk and begin fighting, so
          it falls to Enlil and Enki to resolve their conflict - how they do
          so has not been recovered. (Kramer 1961 pp. 53-54; Kramer 1963 pp.
          220-223)
          
          "The Dispute between Emesh and Enten"
          Enlil creates the herdsman deity Enten and the agricultural deity
          Emesh. He settles a dispute between Emesh and Enten over who should
          be recognized as 'farmer of the gods', declaring Enten's claim to be
          stronger. (Kramer 1961 p. 49-51).
          
          "Enki and Ninhursag"
          He helps Enki again when he was cursed by Ninhursag. Enlil and a fox
          entreat her to return and undo her curse. (Kramer 1961 p. 57)
          
          "Enki and the World Order"
          The me were assembled by Enlil in his temple Ekur, and given to Enki
          to guard and impart to the world, beginning with Eridu, Enki's
          center of worship. (Kramer 1963 pp. 171-183)
          
          "Inanna's Descent to the Nether World"
          Enlil refuses Ninshubur's appeal on behalf of his [grand-]daughter,
          Inanna to help rescue her from Ereshkigal in the underworld.
          (Kramer 1961 pp. 86, 87, 89, 93)
          
          "Ziusudra"
          After the flood, he and An gave Ziusudra eternal life and had him
          live in Dilmun. (Kramer 1961 p. 98)
          
          "Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Netherworld"
          When Gilgamesh looses his pukku and mikku in the nether world, and
          Enkidu is held fast there by demons, he appeals to Enlil for help.
          Enlil refuses to assist him. (Kramer 1961 p. 35-36)
          (See also the Babylonian Ellil)
          
   Enki
          Enki is the son of Nammu, the primeval sea. Contrary to the
          translation of his name, Enki is not the lord of the earth, but of
          the abzu (the watery abyss and also semen) and of wisdom. This
          contradiction leads Kramer and Maier to postulate that he was once
          known as En-kur, lord of the underworld, which either contained or
          was contained in the Abzu. He did struggle with Kur as mentioned in
          the prelude to "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Underworld", and
          presumably was victorious and thereby able to claim the title "Lord
          of Kur" (the realm). He is a god of water, creation, and fertility.
          He also holds dominion over the land. He is the keeper of the me,
          the divine laws. (Kramer & Maier Myths of Enki 1989: pp. 2-3)
          "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Underworld"
          Enki sails for the Kur, presumably to rescue Ereshkigal after she
          was given over to Kur. He is assailed by creatures with stones.
          These creatures may have been an extension of Kur itself. (Wolkstein
          and Kramer p. 4; Kramer 1961 p. 37-38, 78-79)
          
          "Enki and Eridu" Enki raises his city Eridu from the sea, making it
          very lush. He takes his boat to Nippur to have the city blessed by
          Enlil. He throws a feast for the gods, giving Enlil, An, and Nintu
          spacial attention. After the feast, Enlil proclaims that the
          Anunnaki should praise Enki. (Kramer 1961; pp. 62-63)
          
          "Enki and the World Order"
          The me were assembled by Enlil in Ekur and given to Enki to guard
          and impart to the world, beginning with Eridu, his center of
          worship. From there, he guards the me and imparts them on the
          people. He directs the me towards Ur and Meluhha and Dilmun,
          organizing the world with his decrees. (Kramer 1963 pp. 171-183)
          
          "The Dispute between Cattle and Grain"
          Enlil and Enki, at Enki's urging, create farms and fields for the
          grain goddess Ashnan and the cattle goddess Lahar. This area has
          places for Lahar to take care of the animals and Ashnan to grow the
          crops. The two agricultural deities get drunk and begin fighting, so
          it falls to Enlil and Enki to resolve their conflict - how they do
          so has not been recovered. (Kramer 1961 pp. 53-54; Kramer 1963 pp.
          220-223)
          
          "Enki and Ninhursag"
          He blessed the paradisical land of Dilmun, to have plentiful water
          and palm trees. He sires the goddess Ninsar upon Ninhursag, then
          sires Ninkur upon Ninsar, finally siring Uttu, goddess of plants,
          upon Ninkur. Uttu bore eight new types of trees from Enki. He then
          consumed these tree-children and was cursed by Ninhursag, with one
          wound for each plant consumed. Enlil and a fox act on Enki's behalf
          to call back Ninhursag in order to undo the damage. She joins with
          Enki again and bears eight new children, one to cure each of the
          wounds. (Kramer 1963 pp. 147-149; Kramer 1961 pp. 54-59)
          
          "Enki and Ninmah: The Creation of Man"
          The gods complain that they need assistance. At his mother Nammu's
          prompting, he directs her, along with some constructive criticism
          from Ninmah (Ninhursag), in the creation of man from the heart of
          the clay over the Abzu. Several flawed versions were created before
          the final version was made. (Kramer 1963 pp. 149-151; Kramer 1961
          pp. 69-72)
          
          "Inanna's Descent to the Nether World"
          He is friendly to Inanna and rescued her from Kur by sending two
          sexless beings to negotiate with, and flatter Ereshkigal. They gave
          her the Food of Life and the Water of Life, which restored her.
          (Wolkstein and Kramer pp. 62-64)
          
          "Inanna and Enki"
          Later, Inanna comes to Enki and complains at having been given too
          little power from his decrees. In a different text, she gets Enki
          drunk and he grants her more powers, arts, crafts, and attributes -
          a total of ninety-four me. Inanna parts company with Enki to deliver
          the me to her cult center at Erech. Enki recovers his wits and tries
          to recover the me from her, but she arrives safely in Erech with
          them. (Kramer & Maier 1989: pp. 38-68)
          
          (See also Ea)
          
  III B. The Seven Who Decreed Fate
  
   In addition to the four primary deities, there were hundreds of others. A
   group of seven "decreed the fates" - these probably included the first
   four, as well as Nanna, his son Utu, the sun god and a god of justice, and
   Nanna's daughter Inanna, goddess of love and war.
   
   Nanna (Sin, (Suen), Ashgirbabbar)
          Nanna is another name for the moon god Sin. He is the product of
          Enlil's rape of Ninlil. (Kramer, 1963, pp. 146-7.) He travels
          across the sky in his gufa, (a small, canoe-like boat made of woven
          twigs and tar), with the stars and planets about him. (Kramer 1961
          p. 41) Nanna was the tutelary deity of Ur (Kramer 1963 p. 66),
          appointed as king of that city by An and Enlil. (Kramer 1963 pp.
          83-84) He journeyed to Nippur by boat, stopping at five cities along
          the way. When he arrived at Nippur, he proffered gifts to Enlil and
          pleaded with him to ensure that his city of Ur would be blessed,
          prosperous, and thus, not be flooded. (Kramer 1963 pp. 145-146,
          Kramer 1961 pp. 47-49) Nanna was married to Ningal and they produced
          Inanna and Utu. (Wolkstein and Kramer pp. 30-34; Kramer 1961 p. 41)
          He rests in the Underworld every month, and there decrees the fate
          of the dead. (Kramer 1963 p. 132, 135, 210) He refuses to send aid
          to Inanna when she is trapped in the underworld. (Kramer 1963 pp.
          153-154) He established Ur-Nammu as his mortal representative,
          establishing the third Ur dynasty. (Kramer 1963 p. 84)
          
   Utu
          Utu is the son of Nanna and Ningal and the god of the Sun and of
          Justice. He goes to the underworld at the end of every day setting
          in the "mountain of the west" and rising in the "mountain of the
          east". While there decrees the fate of the dead, although he also
          may lie down to sleep at night. (Kramer 1963 p. 132, 135; Kramer
          1961 pp. 41-42) He is usually depicted with fiery rays coming out of
          his shoulders and upper arms, and carrying a saw knife. (Kramer 1961
          p. 40) When Inanna's huluppu tree is infested with unwelcome guests,
          he ignores her appeal for aid. (Wolkstein and Kramer pp. 6-7) He
          tries to set her up with Dumuzi, the shepherd, but she initially
          rebuffs him, preferring the farmer. (Wolkstein and Kramer pp. 30-33)
          He aided Dumuzi in his flight from the galla demons by helping him
          to transform into different creatures. (Wolkstein and Kramer pp.
          72-73, 81) Through Enki's orders, he also brings water up from the
          earth in order to irrigate Dilmun, the garden paradise, the place
          where the sun rises. (Kramer 1963 p. 148) He is in charge of the
          "Land of the Living" and, in sympathy for Gilgamesh, calls off the
          seven weather heroes who defend that land. (Kramer 1963 pp. 190-193)
          He opened the "ablal" of the Underworld for the shade of Enkidu, to
          allow him to escape, at the behest of Enki. (Kramer 1963 p. 133;
          Kramer 1961 p. 36)
          (See also Shamash)
          
   Inanna
          Nanna and Ningal's daughter Inanna, goddess of love and war.
          "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Underworld"
          A woman planted the huluppu tree in Inanna's garden, but the
          Imdugud-bird (Anzu bird?) made a nest for its young there, Lilith
          (or her predecessor, a lilitu-demon) made a house in its trunk, and
          a serpent made a home in its roots. Inanna appeals to Utu about her
          unwelcome guests, but he is unsympathetic. She appeals to Gilgamesh,
          here her brother, and he is receptive. He tears down the tree and
          makes it into a throne and bed for her. In return for the favor,
          Inanna manufactures a pukku and mikku for him. (Wolkstein and Kramer
          pp. 5-9)
          
          "Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven"
          Later, Inanna seeks out Gilgamesh as her lover. When he spurns her
          she sends the Bull of Heaven to terrorize his city of Erech. (Kramer
          1963 p. 262)
          
          "The Courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi"
          Her older brother Utu tries to set her up with Dumuzi, the shepherd,
          but she initially rebuffs him, preferring the farmer. He assures her
          that his parents are as good as hers and she begins to desire him.
          Her mother, Ningal, further assures her. The two consummate their
          relationship and with their exercise in fertility, the plants and
          grains grow as well. After they spend time in the marriage bed,
          Inanna declares herself as his battle leader and sets his duties as
          including sitting on the throne and guiding the path of weapons. At
          Ninshubur's request, she gives him power over the fertility of
          plants and animals. (Wolkstein and Kramer pp. 30-50)
          
          "Inanna's Descent to the Nether World"
          Inanna also visits Kur, which results in a myth reminiscent of the
          Greek seasonal story of Persephone. She sets out to witness the
          funeral rites of her sister-in-law Ereshkigal's husband Gugalanna,
          the Bull of Heaven. She takes precaution before setting out, by
          telling her servant Ninshubur to seek assistance from Enlil, Nanna,
          or Enki at their shrines, should she not return. Inanna knocks on
          the outer gates of Kur and the gatekeeper, Neti, questions her. He
          consults with queen Ereshkigal and then allows Inanna to pass
          through the seven gates of the underworld. After each gate, she is
          required to remove adornments and articles of clothing, until after
          the seventh gate, she is naked. The Annuna pass judgment against her
          and Ereshkigal killed her and hung her on the wall. (see Ereshkigal)
          (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983 pp. 52-60)
          
          Inanna is rescued by the intervention of Enki. He creates two
          sexless creatures that empathize with Ereshkigal's suffering, and
          thereby gain a gift - Inanna's corpse. They restore her to life with
          the Bread of Life and the Water of Life, but the Sumerian underworld
          has a conservation of death law. No one can leave without providing
          someone to stay in their stead. Inanna is escorted by galla/demons
          past Ninshubur and members of her family. She doesn't allow them to
          claim anyone until she sees Dumuzi on his throne in Uruk. They then
          seize Dumuzi, but he escapes them twice by transforming himself,
          with the aid of Utu. Eventually he is caught and slain. Inanna spies
          his sister, Geshtinanna, in mourning and they go to Dumuzi. She
          allows Dumuzi, the shepherd, to stay in the underworld only six
          months of the year, while Geshtinanna will stay the other six.
          (Wolkstein & Kramer pp. 60-89) As with the Greek story of the
          kidnapping of Persephone, this linked the changing seasons, the
          emergence of the plants from the ground, with the return of a
          harvest deity from the nether world. Geshtinanna is also associated
          with growth, but where her brother rules over the spring harvested
          grain, she rules over the autumn harvested vines (Wolkstein & Kramer
          p. 168).
          
          "Inanna and Mount Ebih"
          Inanna complains to An about Mount Ebih (Kur?) demanding that it
          glorify her and submit lest she attack it. An discourages her from
          doing so because of its fearsome power. She does so anyway, bringing
          a storehouse worth of weapons to bear on it. She destroys it.
          Because she is known as the Destroyer of Kur in certain hymns,
          Kramer identifys Mt. Ebih with Kur. (Kramer 1961 pp. 82-83)
          
          "Inanna and Enki"
          The me were universal decrees of divine authority -the invocations
          that spread arts, crafts, and civilization. Enki became the keeper
          of the me. Inanna comes to Enki and complains at having been given
          too little power from his decrees. In a different text, she gets
          Enki drunk and he grants her more powers, arts, crafts, and
          attributes - a total of ninety-four me. Inanna parts company with
          Enki to deliver the me to her cult center at Erech. Enki recovers
          his wits and tries to recover the me from her, but she arrives
          safely in Erech with them. (Kramer & Maier 1989: pp. 38-68)
          (See also Ishtar)
          
  III. C. The Annuna (Anunnaki) and others
  
   At the next level were fifty "great gods", possibly the same as the Annuna,
   although several gods confined to the underworld are specifically
   designated Annuna, An's children. The Annuna are also said to live in
   Dulkug or Du-ku, the "holy mound".(Kramer 1963: pp. 122-123, Black and
   Green p. 72, Kramer 1961, p. 73). In the "Descent of Inanna to the Nether
   World" the Anunnaki are identified as the seven judges of the nether world.
   (Kramer 1963 p. 154; Kramer 1961 p. 119)
   
   Ereshkigal
          Ereshkigal is the queen of the underworld, who is either given to
          Kur in the underworld or given dominion over the underworld in the
          prelude to "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Underworld". (Wolkstein and
          Kramer p. 157-158; Kramer 1961 p. 37-38) She has a palace there with
          seven gates and is due a visit by those entering Kur. (Kramer 1963
          pp. 131, 134) She was married to Gugalanna, the Bull of Heaven, and
          is Inanna's older sister. When Inanna trespassed on her domain,
          Ereshkigal first directs her gatekeeper to open the seven gates a
          crack and remove her garments. (Wolkstein and Kramer pp. 55-57) Then
          when Inanna arrives she:
          
     ...fastened on Inanna the eye of death.
     She spoke against her the word of wrath.
     She uttered against her the cry of guilt
     
     She struck her.
     Inanna was turned into a corpse,
     ...And was hung from a hook on the wall.( Wolkstein & Kramer 1983 p. 60)
     
          Later, when Enki's messengers arrive, she is moaning in pain. When
          they empathize with her, she grants them a boon. They request
          Inanna's corpse and she accedes. (Wolkstein & Kramer pp. 64-67) (See
          also Babylonian Ereshkigal)
          
   Nergal (Meslamtaea) -
          Nergal is the second son of Enlil and Ninlil. (Kramer 1961 pp.
          44-45) He is perhaps the co-ruler of Kur with Ereshkigal where he
          has a palace and is due reverence by those who visit. He holds
          Enkidu fast in the underworld after Enkidu broke several taboos
          while trying to recover Gilgamesh's pukku and mikku. He is more
          prominent in Babylonian literature and makes a brief appearance in
          II Kings 17:30.
          (See Babylonian Nergal)
          
   Ninlil
          Ninlil was the intended bride of Enlil and the daughter of
          Nunbarshegunu, the old woman of Nippur. Enlil raped her and was then
          banished to the nether world (kur). She follows him to the nether
          world, where she gives birth to the moon god Sin (also known as
          Nanna). They have three more children in the nether world including
          Meslamtaea/(Nergal) and Ninazu who remain there so that Sin may be
          allowed to leave. (Kramer, Sumerians 1963: pp.146-7; Kramer 1961 pp.
          43-46). In some texts she is Enlil's sister while Ninhursag is his
          bride. (Jacobsen p.105) Her chief shrine was in the Tummal district
          of Nippur. (See also Babylonian Ninlil)
          
   Ningal
          She is Nanna's wife and the mother of Inanna and Utu. She begs and
          weeps before Enlil for them not to flood her city, Ur.
          (see also Babylonian Ningal and Nikkal of the Canaanites.)
          
   Nanshe
          Nanshe is a goddess of the city of Lagash who takes care of orphans
          and widows. She also seeks out justice for the poor and casts
          judgement on New Year's Day. She is supported by Nidaba and her
          husband, Haia. (Kramer 1963 pp. 124-125)
          
   Nidaba
          The goddess of writing and the patron deity of the edubba (palace
          archives). She is an assistant to Nanshe. (Kramer 1963 pp. 124-125)
          
   Ninisinna (Nininsinna)
          The patron goddess of the city Isin. She is the "hierodule of An"
          
   Ninkasi ("The Lady who fills the mouth")
          She is the goddess of brewing or alcohol, born of "sparkling-fresh
          water". (Kramer 1963 pp. 111, 206) She is one of the eight healing
          children born by Ninhursag for Enki She is born in response to
          Enki's mouth pain and Ninhursag declares that she should be the
          goddess who "sates the heart" (Kramer 1961 p. 58) or "who satisfies
          desire". (Kramer and Maier p. 30)
          
   Ninurta
          Ninurta is Enlil's son and a warrior deity, the god of the south
          wind. (Kramer 1963 p. 145; Kramer 1961 p. 80) In "The Feats and
          Exploits of Ninurta", that deity sets out to destroy the Kur. Kur
          initially intimidates Ninurta into retreating, but when Ninurta
          returns with greater resolve, Kur is destroyed. This looses the
          waters of the Abzu, causing the fields to be flooded with unclean
          waters. Ninurta dams up the Abzu by piling stones over Kur's corpse.
          He then drains these waters into the Tigris. (Kramer 1961 pp.
          80-82). The identification of Ninurta's antagonist in this passage
          as Kur appears to be miscast. Black and Green identify his foe as
          the demon Asag, who was the spawn of An and Ki, and who produced
          monstrous offspring with Kur. The remainder of the details of this
          story are the same as in Kramer's account, but with Asag replacing
          Kur. In other versions, Ninurta is replaced by Adad/Ishkur. (Black &
          Green pp. 35-36)
          (See also the Babylonian Ninurta)
          
   Ashnan
          The kindly maid. Ashnan is a grain goddess, initially living in
          Dulkug (Du-ku). (Kramer 1961 p. 50) Enlil and Enki, at Enki's
          urging, create farms and fields for her and for the cattle god
          Lahar. This area has places for Lahar to take care of the animals
          and Ashnan to grow the crops. The two agricultural deities get drunk
          and begin fighting, so it falls to Enlil and Enki to resolve their
          conflict - how they do so has not been recovered. (Kramer 1961 pp.
          53-54)
          
   Lahar
          Lahar is the cattle-goddess, initially living in Duku (Dulkug).
          Enlil and Enki, at Enki's urging, create farms and fields for him
          and the grain goddess Ashnan. This area has places for Lahar to take
          care of the animals and Ashnan to grow the crops. The two
          agricultural deities get drunk and begin fighting, so it falls to
          Enlil and Enki to resolve their conflict - how they do so has not
          been recovered. (Kramer 1961 pp. 53-54; Kramer 1963 pp. 220-223)
          
   Emesh
          Created by Enlil this god is responsible for agriculture. He
          quarrels with his brother Enten, and makes a claim to be the 'farmer
          of the gods', bringing his claim to Enlil after Enten. When Enlil
          judges Enten's claim to be stronger, Emesh relents, brings him
          gifts, and reconciles. (Kramer 1961 pp. 49-51)
          
   Enten
          He is a farmer god, and is Enlil's field worker and herdsman. He
          quarrels with his brother Emesh and makes an appeal to Enlil that he
          deserves to be 'farmer of the gods'. Enlil judges Enten's claim to
          be the stronger and the two reconcile with Emesh bringing Enten
          gifts. (Kramer 1961 pp. 42, 49-51)
          
   Uttu
          She is the goddess of weaving and clothing (Kramer 1963 p. 174;
          Black and Green p. 182) and was previously thought to be the goddess
          of plants. She is both the child of Enki and Ninkur, and she bears
          eight new child/trees from Enki. When he then ate Uttu's children,
          Ninhursag cursed him with eight wounds and disappears. (Kramer 1961
          pp. 57-59)
          
   Enbilulu
          The "knower" of rivers. He is the god appointed in charge of the
          Tigris and Euphrates by Enki. (Kramer 1961 p. 61)
          
   Ishkur
          God appointed to be in charge of the winds by Enki. He is in charge
          of "the silver lock of the 'heart' of heaven". (Kramer 1961 p. 61)
          He is identified with the Akkadian god, Adad. (Black and Green pp.
          35-36)
          
   Enkimdu
          God placed in charge of canals and ditches by Enki. (Kramer 1961 p.
          61)
          
   Kabta
          God placed in charge of the pickax and brickmold by Enki. (Kramer
          1961 p. 61)
          
   Mushdamma
          God placed in charge of foundations and houses by Enki. (Kramer 1961
          p. 61)
          
   Sumugan
          The god of the plain or "king of the mountain", he is the god placed
          in charge of the plant and animal life on the plain of Sumer by
          Enki. (Kramer 1961 pp. 61-62; Kramer 1963 p. 220)
          
  III. D. Demigods, mortal Heroes, and Monsters
  
   Dumuzi (demigod) (Tammuz)
          A shepherd, he is the son of Enki and Sirtur. (Wolkstein & Kramer p.
          34) He is given charge of stables and sheepfolds, filled with milk
          and fat by Enki. (Kramer 1961 p. 62) He has a palace in Kur, and is
          due a visit by those entering Kur. He is Inanna's husband. In life,
          he was the shepherd king of Uruk.
          
          "The Courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi"
          Utu tries to set Inanna up with him but she initially rebuffs him,
          preferring the farmer. He assures her that his parents are as good
          as hers and she begins to desire him. The two consummate their
          relationship and with their exercise in fertility, the plants and
          grains grow as well. After they spend time in the marriage bed,
          Inanna declares herself as his battle leader and sets his duties as
          including sitting on the throne and guiding the path of weapons. At
          Ninshubur's request, she gives him power over the fertility of
          plants and animals. (Wolkstein and Kramer pp. 30-50)
          
          "Descent of Inanna to the Nether World"
          Upon her rescue from the dead, he was pursued by galla demons, which
          he eluded for a time with the aid of Utu. Eventually he was caught
          and slain; however, he was partially freed from his stay in the
          underworld by the actions of his sister Geshtinanna. Now he resides
          there only half of the year, while she lives there the other half
          year; this represents seasonal change (see Inanna and Geshtinanna).
          (Wolkstein and Kramer pp. 71-89)
          (See also the Babylonian Tammuz.)
          
   Geshtinanna (demigoddess)
          She is Dumuzi's sister. After his death, she visited him in the
          underworld with Inanna, and was allowed to take his place there for
          six months out of the year. Her time in the underworld and her
          periodic emergence from it are linked with her new divine authority
          over the autumn vines and wine. (see also Inanna, Dumuzi)
          
   Ziusudra (Ziusura)
          In the Sumerian version of the flood story, the pious Ziusudra of
          Shuruppak (Kramer 1963 p. 26), the son of Ubartutu (or of
          Shuruppak?) (Kramer 1963 p. 224) is informed of the gods decision to
          destroy mankind by listening to a wall. He weathers the deluge and
          wind-storms aboard a huge boat. The only surviving detail of the
          boat is that it had a window. The flood lasts for seven days before
          Utu appears dispersing the flood waters. After that, Ziusudra makes
          appropriate sacrifices and protrations to Utu, An and Enlil. He is
          given eternal life in Dilmun by An and Enlil. (Kramer 1963 pp.
          163-164; Kramer 1961 pp. 97-98)
          
          Jacobsen reports a more complete version of "The Eridu Genesis" than
          Kramer or Black and Green which is close to the Babylonian story of
          Atrahasis. In this account, man had been directed to live in cities
          by Nintur but as they thrived, the noise irritated Enlil, who thus
          started the flood. In this account, Enki warns Ziusudra, instructing
          him to build the boat for his family and for representatives of the
          animals. The remainder is consistent with the accounts of Kramer and
          Black and Green. (Jacobsen p. 114)
          
   Gilgamesh (demigod)
          The son, either of a nomad or of the hero-king Lugalbanda and of the
          goddess Ninsun, Gilgamesh, may have been a historical King of Erech,
          during the time of the first Ur dynasty. His kingship is mentioned
          in various places, including the Sumerian King list and he was also
          an en, a spiritual head of a temple. He was also the lord of Kulab
          and by one account, the brother of Inanna. He was "the prince
          beloved of An", (Kramer p. 260, 188) and "who performs heroic deeds
          for Inanna" (Kramer 1963 p. 187)
          
          "Gilgamesh and Agga" - (Pritchard pp.44-47; Kramer 1963 pp. 187-190)
          King Agga of Kish sent an ultimatum to Erech. Gilgamesh tried to
          convince the elders that Erech should sack Kish in response, but the
          elders wanted to submit. He responded by taking the matter to the
          men of the city, who agreed to take up arms. Agga laid seige to
          Erech and Gilgamesh resisted with the help of his servant, Enkidu.
          He sent a soldier through the gate to Agga. The soldier is captured
          and tortured with a brief respite while another of Gilgamesh's
          soldiers climbs over the wall. Gilgamesh himself then climbs the
          wall and Agga's forces are so taken aback by the sight of them that
          Agga capitulates. Gilgamesh graciously accepts Agga's surrender,
          prasing him for returning his city.
          
          After this episode, he apparently took Nippur from the son of the
          founder of the Ur I dynasty.
          
          "Gilgamesh and the Land of the Living" (Pritchard pp. 47-50, Kramer
          1963 pp. 190-197)
          Gilgamesh, saddened by the dying he sees in his city, decides to go
          to the "Land of the Living" says so to Enkidu. At Enkidu's urging,
          Gilgamesh makes a sacrifice and first speaks to Utu, who is in
          charge of that land. After he informs Utu of his motives, the god
          calls off his seven guardian weather heroes. Gilgamesh recruits
          fifty single men to accompany them and commissions swords and axes.
          They travel over seven mountains, felling trees along the way
          eventually finding the "cedar of his heart". After some broken text
          Gilgamesh is in a deep sleep, presumably after an encounter with
          Huwawa. Enkidu or one of the others wakes him. They come upon
          Huwawa and Gilgamesh distracts him with flatery, then puts a nose
          ring on him and binds his arms. Huwawa grovels to Gilgamesh and
          Enkidu and Gilgamesh almost releases him. Enkidu argues against it
          and when Huwawa protests, he decapitates Huwawa. Gilgamesh is
          angered by Enkidu's rash action.
          
          "Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Netherworld" (Kramer 1963 p.197-205)
          Inanna appeals to Gilgamesh, here her brother, when her huluppu tree
          has been occupied and he is receptive. He tears down the tree and
          makes it into a throne and bed for her. In return for the favor,
          Inanna manufactures a pukku and mikku for him.
          
          He leaves them out, goes to sleep and can't find them where he left
          them when he awakens. They had fallen into the underworld. Enkidu
          asks him what is wrong and Gilgamesh asks him to retrieve them,
          giving him instructions on how to behave in the underworld. Enkidu
          enters the "Great Dwelling" through a gate, but he broke several of
          the underworld taboos of which Gilgamesh warned, including the
          wearing of clean clothes and sandals, 'good' oil, carrying a weapon
          or staff, making a noise, or behaving normally towards ones family
          (Kramer 1963: pp. 132-133). For these violations he was "held fast
          by 'the outcry of the nether world'". Gilgamesh appeals to Enlil,
          who refuses to help. Intervention by Enki, rescued the hero - or at
          least raised his shade for Gilgamesh to speak with.
          
          "Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven"
          He rejects Inanna's advances, so she sends the "Bull of Heaven" to
          ravage Erech in retribution. (Kramer 1963 p. 262)
          
          "Death of Gilgamesh" (Pritchard pp. 50-52, Kramer 1963 pp. 130-131)
          Gilgamesh is fated by Enlil to die but also to be unmatched as a
          warrior. When he dies, his wife and household servants make
          offerings (of themselves?) for Gilgamesh to the deities of the
          underworld.
          
          He is given a palace in the nether world and venerated as lesser god
          of the dead. It is respectful to pay him a visit upon arrival. If he
          knew you in life or is of your kin he may explain the rules of Kur
          to you - which he helps to regulate.
          
          His son and successor was either Ur-lugal or Urnungal.
          (see Babylonian Gilgamesh)
          
   Enkidu
          Gilgamesh's servant and friend. He assists Gilgamesh in putting back
          Agga's seige of Erech.
          
          He accompanies Gilgamesh and his soldiers on the trip to the "Land
          of the Living". Probably after an initial encounter with Huwawa,
          Gilgamesh falls asleep and Enkidu awakens him. They come upon Huwawa
          and Gilgamesh distracts him with flatery, then puts a nose ring on
          him and binds his arms. Huwawa grovels to Gilgamesh and Enkidu and
          Gilgamesh almost releases him. Enkidu argues against it and when
          Huwawa protests, he decapitates Huwawa. Gilgamesh is angered by
          Enkidu's rash action.
          
          The main body of the Gilgamesh tale includes a trip to the
          nether-world. Enkidu enters the "Great Dwelling" through a gate, in
          order to recover Gilgamesh's pukku and mikku, objects of an
          uncertain nature. He broke several taboos of the underworld,
          including the wearing of clean clothes and sandals, 'good' oil,
          carrying a weapon or staff, making a noise, or behaving normally
          towards ones family (Kramer 1963: pp. 132-133). For these violations
          he was "held fast by 'the outcry of the nether world'". Intervention
          by Enki, rescued the hero or at least raised his shade for Gilgamesh
          to speak with.
          
   Kur
          Kur literally means "mountain", "foreign land", or "land" and came
          to be identified both with the underworld and, more specifically,
          the area which either was contained by or contained the Abzu.
          (Kramer 1961 p. 76) In the prelude to "Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the
          Underworld, Ereshkigal was carried off into the Kur as it's prize at
          about the same time as An and Enlil carried off the heaven and the
          earth. Later in that same passage, Enki also struggled with Kur as
          and presumably was victorious, thereby able to claim the title "Lord
          of Kur" (the realm). Kramer suggests that Kur was a dragon-like
          creature, calling to mind Tiamat and Leviathan. The texts suggests
          that Enki's struggle may have been with instruments of the land of
          kur - its stones or its creatures hurling stones. (Kramer 1961 p.
          37-38, 78-79) (See also Apsu and Tiamat.)
          
          In "The Feats and Exploits of Ninurta", that deity sets out to
          destroy the Kur. Kur initially intimidates Ninurta into retreating,
          but when Ninurta returns with greater resolve, Kur is destroyed.
          This looses the waters of the Abzu, causing the fields to be flooded
          with unclean waters. Ninurta dams up the Abzu by piling stones over
          Kur's corpse. He then drains these waters into the Tigris. (Kramer
          1961 pp. 80-82). The identification of Ninurta's antagonist in this
          passage as Kur appears to be miscast. Black and Green identify his
          foe as the demon Asag, who was the spawn of An and Ki, and who
          produced monstrous offspring with Kur. The remainder of the details
          of this story are the same as in Kramer's account, but with Asag
          replacing Kur. In other versions, Ninurta is replaced by
          Adad/Ishkur. (Black & Green pp. 35-36)
          
          "Inanna and Mt. Ebih": Inanna is also described in Hymns as a
          destroyer of Kur. If one, as Kramer does, identifies Kur with Mt.
          Ebih, then we learn that it has directed fear against the gods, the
          Anunnaki and the land, sending forth rays of fire against the land.
          Inanna declares to An that she will attack Mt. Ebih unless it
          submits. An warns against such an attack, but Inanna procedes anyway
          and destroys it. (Kramer 1961 pp. 82-83).
          
   Gugalanna (Gugal-ana)
          He is Ereshkigal's husband, and according to Kramer, the Bull of
          Heaven. (Wolkstein and Kramer p. 55) Black and Green tentatively
          identify him with Ennugi, god of canals and dikes, rather than the
          Bull of Heaven. (Black and Green p. 77) After Gilgamesh spurned
          Inanna, she sends the Bull of Heaven to terrorize Erech. (Kramer
          1963 p. 262)
          
   Huwawa
          Guardian of the cedar of the heart in the the "Land of the living",
          Huwawa has dragon's teeth, a lion's face, a roar like rushing flood
          water, huge clawed feet and a thick mane. He lived there in a cedar
          house. He appears to have attacked Gilgamesh, Enkidu and company
          when they felled that cedar. They then come upon Huwawa and
          Gilgamesh distracts him with flatery, then puts a nose ring on him
          and binds his arms. Huwawa grovels to Gilgamesh and Enkidu and
          Gilgamesh almost releases him. Enkidu argues against it and when
          Huwawa protests, he decapitates Huwawa. See also the Babylonian
          Humbaba
          
   Gods in Kur with palaces who are due reverence:
   
   Namtar - "Fate", the demon responsible for death. Namtar has no hands or
          feet and does not eat or drink. (Pritchard p. 51)
          
   Hubishag
          
   Ningishzida - the god of dawn
          
   Dimpemekug - due gifts, no palace
          
   Neti - the chief gatekeeper
          the scribe of Kur - due gifts, no palace
          
   The Sumerians had many other deities as well, most of which appear to have
   been minor.
   
IV. What about the Underworld?

   The underworld of the Sumerians is revealed, to some extent, by a
   composition about the death and afterlife of the king and warlord Ur-Nammu.
   After having died on the battlefield, Ur- Nammu arrives below, where he
   offers sundry gifts and sacrifices to the "seven gods" of the nether world:
   
     ...Nergal, [the deified] Gilgamesh, Ereshkigal [the queen of the
     underworld, who is either given to Kur in the underworld or given
     dominion over the underworld in the prelude to Gilgamesh (Kramer & Maier
     1989: p. 83) (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983: p. 4)] , Dumuzi [the shepherd,
     Inanna's husband], Namtar, Hubishag, and Ningishzida - each in his own
     palace; he also presented gifts to Dimpimekug and to the "scribe of the
     nether- world."... [After arriving at his assigned spot] ...certain of
     the dead were turned over to him, perhaps to be his attendants, and
     Gilgamesh, his beloved brother, explained to him the rules and
     regulations of the nether world. (Kramer 1963: p. 131)
     
   Another tablet indicates that the sun, moon, and their respective gods,
   spent time in the underworld as well. The sun journeyed there after
   setting, and the moon rested there at the end of the month. Both Utu and
   Nanna '''decreed the fate' of the dead" while there. (Kramer 1963: p. 132)
   Dead heroes ate bread, drank, and quenched the dead's thirst with water.
   The gods of the nether world, the deceased, and his city, were prayed to
   for the benefit of the dead and his family.
   
   The Sumerian version of Gilgamesh includes a trip to the nether world as
   well. In the prologue, Enki sails for the Kur, presumably to rescue
   Ereshkigal after she was given over to Kur. He is assailed by creatures
   with stones. The main body of the tale includes a trip to the nether world
   as well. Enkidu enters the "Great Dwelling" through a gate, in order to
   recover Gilgamesh's pukku and mikku, objects of an uncertain nature. He
   broke several taboos of the underworld, including the wearing of clean
   clothes and sandals, 'good' oil, carrying a weapon or staff, making a
   noise, or behaving normally towards ones family (Kramer 1963: pp. 132-133).
   For these violations he was "held fast by 'the outcry of the nether
   world'". Intervention by Enki, rescued the hero.
   
   When Enlil visits the nether world, he must pass by a gatekeeper, followed
   by a "man of the river" and a "man of the boat" - all of whom act as
   guardians.(Kramer 1961 pp. 45-47)
   
   Inanna also visits Kur, which results in a myth reminiscent of the Greek
   seasonal story of Persephone. She sets out to witness the funeral rites of
   her sister-in-law Ereshkigal's husband Gugalanna, the Bull of Heaven. She
   takes precaution before setting out, by telling her servant Ninshubur to
   seek assistance from Enlil, Nanna, or Enki at their shrines, should she not
   return. Inanna knocks on the outer gates of Kur and the gatekeeper, Neti,
   questions her. He consults with queen Ereshkigal and then allows Inanna to
   pass through the seven gates of the underworld. After each gate, she is
   required to remove adornments and articles of clothing, until after the
   seventh gate, she is naked. The Annuna pass judgment against her and
   Ereshkigal slays her and hangs her on the wall (Wolkstein & Kramer 1983 p.
   60)
   
   Inanna is rescued by the intervention of Enki. He creates two sexless
   creatures that empathize with Ereshkigal's suffering, and thereby gain a
   gift - Inanna's corpse. They restore her to life with the Bread of Life and
   the Water of Life, but the Sumerian underworld has a conservation of death
   law. No one can leave without providing someone to stay in their stead.
   Inanna is escorted by galla/demons past Ninshubur and members of her
   family. She doesn't allow them to claim anyone until she sees Dumuzi on his
   throne in Uruk. They then seize Dumuzi, but he escapes them twice by
   transforming himself, with the aid of Utu. Eventually he is caught and
   slain. Inanna spies his sister, Geshtinanna, in mourning and they go to
   Dumuzi. She allows Dumuzi, the shepherd, to stay in the underworld only six
   months of the year, while Geshtinanna will stay the other six. (Wolkstein &
   Kramer pp. 60-89) As with the Greek story of the kidnapping of Persephone,
   this linked the changing seasons, the emergence of the plants from the
   ground, with the return of a harvest deity from the nether world. Although
   he had always been a shepherd (and possibly a mortal king) he was blessed
   with the powers of fertility following the consummation of his marriage to
   Inanna in "The Courtship of Inanna and Dumuzi".
   
     As the farmer, let him make the fields fertile,
     As the shepherd, let him make the sheepfolds multiply,
     Under his reign let there be vegetation,
     Under his reign let there be rich grain (Wolkstein & Kramer p. 45)
     
   Geshtinanna is also associated with growth, but where her brother rules
   over the spring harvested grain, she rules over the autumn harvested vines
   (Wolkstein & Kramer p. 168)
   
V. What are me anyway?

   Another important concept in Sumerian theology, was that of me. The me were
   universal decrees of divine authority. They are the invocations that spread
   arts, crafts, and civilization. The me were assembled by Enlil in Ekur and
   given to Enki to guard and impart to the world, beginning with Eridu, his
   center of worship. From there, he guards the me and imparts them on the
   people. He directs the me towards Ur and Meluhha and Dilmun, organizing the
   world with his decrees. Later, Inanna comes to Enki and complains at having
   been given too little power from his decrees. In a different text, she gets
   Enki drunk and he grants her more powers, arts, crafts, and attributes - a
   total of ninety-four me. Inanna parts company with Enki to deliver the me
   to her cult center at Erech. Enki recovers his wits and tries to recover
   the me from her, but she arrives safely in Erech with them. (Kramer & Maier
   1989: pp. 38-68)
   
VI. I've heard that there are a lot of Biblical parallels in Sumerian literature.
What are they?

   Traces of Sumerian religion survive today and are reflected in writings of
   the Bible. As late as Ezekiel, there is mention of a Sumerian deity. In
   Ezekiel 8:14, the prophet sees women of Israel weeping for Tammuz (Dumuzi)
   during a drought.
   
   The bulk of Sumerian parallels can, however be found much earlier, in the
   book of Genesis. As in Genesis, the Sumerians' world is formed out of the
   watery abyss and the heavens and earth are divinely separated from one
   another by a solid dome. The second chapter of Genesis introduces the
   paradise Eden, a place which is similar to the Sumerian Dilmun, described
   in the myth of "Enki and Ninhursag". Dilmun is a pure, bright, and holy
   land - now often identified with Bahrain in the Persian Gulf. It is blessed
   by Enki to have overflowing, sweet water. Enki fills it with lagoons and
   palm trees. He impregnates Ninhursag and causes eight new plants to grow
   from the earth. Eden, "in the East" (Gen. 2:8) has a river which also
   "rises" or overflows, to form four rivers including the Tigris and
   Euphrates. It too is lush and has fruit bearing trees. (Gen. 2:9-10) In the
   second version of the creation of man "The Lord God formed man out of the
   clay of the ground and blew into his nostrils the breath of life, and so
   man became a living being." Enki and Ninmah (Ninhursag) use a similar
   method in creating man. Nammu, queen of the abyss and Enki's mother, bids
   Enki to "Kneed the 'heart' of the clay that is over the Abzu " and "give it
   form" (Kramer & Maier p. 33) From there the similarities cease as the two
   create several malformed humans and then the two deities get into an
   argument.
   
   Returning to Enki and Ninhursag, we find a possible parallel to the
   creation of Eve. Enki consumed the plants that were Ninhursag's children
   and so was cursed by Ninhursag, receiving one wound for each plant
   consumed. Enlil and a fox act on Enki's behalf to call back Ninhursag in
   order to undo the damage. She joins with him again and bears eight new
   children, each of whom are the cure to one of his wounds. The one who cures
   his rib is named Ninti, whose name means the Queen of months, (Kramer &
   Maier 1989: pp. 28-30) the lady of the rib, or she who makes live. This
   association carries over to Eve. (Kramer, History Begins at Sumer 1981: pp.
   143-144) In Genesis, Eve is fashioned from Adam's rib and her name hawwa is
   related to the Hebrew word hay or living. (New American Bible p. 7.) The
   prologue of "Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the Underworld" may contain the
   predecessor to the tree of knowledge of good and evil. This tree not only
   contains a crafty serpent, but also Lilith, the legendary first wife of
   Adam. The huluppu tree is transplanted by Inanna from the banks of the
   Euphrates to her garden in Uruk, where she finds that:
   
     ...a serpent who could not be charmed
     made its nest in the roots of the tree,
     The Anzu bird set his young in the branches of the tree,
     And the dark maid Lilith built her home in the trunk. (Wolkstein and
     Kramer 1983: p. 8)
     
   It should be noted that Kramer's interpretation that this creature is
   Lilith has come into quiestion of late.
   
   Another possible Sumerian carry-over related to the Fall of man is the lack
   of "pangs of childbearing" for those in Dilmun. In particular, Ninhursag
   gives birth in nine days, not nine months, and the pass "like good princely
   cream" (Kramer 1981: p. 142,145) or "fine oil" (Kramer & Maier 1989: p. 25)
   
   The quarrels between herder god and farmer deity pairs such as Lahar and
   Ashnan or Enten and Emesh are similar in some respects to the quarrels of
   Cain and Abel. In the Sumerian versions death appears to be avoided,
   although we do not have the complete Lahar and Ashnan story. (Kramer 1961
   pp. 49-51, 53-54)
   
   The ten patriarchs in Genesis born prior to the flood lived very long
   lives, most in excess of 900 years. The seventh patriarch, Enoch, lived
   only 365 years before he "walked with God". (Genesis 5). The account which
   numbers those Patriarchs as ten is attributed to the Priestly source. The
   Yahwist source (J), details only seven Patriarchs prior to Noah, so that
   with him included, there are eight antediluvian patriarchs. (Genesis 4:
   17-18) The eight antediluvian kings of in the Sumerian King List also lived
   for hundreds of years. (Kramer 1963 p. 328) S. H. Hooke notes another
   version of the Sumerian King list, found in Larsa details ten antediluvian
   kings. (Hooke, p. 130) The clearest Biblical parallel comes from the story
   of the Flood. In the Sumerian version, the pious Ziusudra is informed of
   the gods decision to destroy mankind by listening to a wall. He too
   weathers the deluge aboard a huge boat. Noah's flood lasts a long time, but
   Ziusudra comes to rest within seven days and not the near year of the
   Bible. He does not receive a covenant, but is given eternal life. (Kramer
   1963 pp. 163-164; Kramer 1961 pp. 97-98)
   
   As far as the New Testament goes, many also draw a parallel between Dumuzi
   and Jesus because Dumuzi is a shepherd-king and he is resurrected from the
   dead. This is perhaps appealing to some as Dumuzi's Akkadian analog,
   Tammuz, appears in the Bible, however Dumuzi's periodic return from the
   underworld is not unique even in Sumerian literature. His sister
   Geshtinanna also rises from the dead, and if one counts those born as
   deities, Inanna does as well. Periodic death and rebirth is a common theme
   in agricultural myths where the return of the deities from the earth
   mirrors a return to life of plants.
   
VII. Sources

     * Black, Jeremy and Green, Anthony, Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient
       Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary, University of Texas Press,
       Austin, 1992. This up-to-date and thorough resource on Mesopotamian
       mythology has great photos and illustrations by Tessa Rickards and very
       useful entries which often indicate the times and places when variant
       tales were current. My only complaint is that it is not always clear
       whether information in an entry is applicable to the Sumerian,
       Akkadian, or both versions of a particular deity or hero.
     * Crawford, Harriet, Sumer and the Sumerians, Cambridge University Press,
       Cambridge, 1991. (This is a briefer but more up to date archaeological
       look at the Sumerians than you'll find with Kramer. There isn't much
       mythic content in this one, but there are many wonderful figures
       detailing city plans, and the structure of temples and other
       buildings.)
     * Jacobsen, Thorkild, The Treasures of Darkness, Yale University Press,
       New Haven, 1976. A good alternative to Kramer, Jacobsen explores
       Mesopotamian religious development from early Sumerian times through
       the Babylonian Enuma Elish. Most of the book winds up being on the
       Sumerians.
     * Kramer, Samuel Noah, and Maier, John, Myths of Enki, the Crafty God,
       Oxford University Press, New York,1989. The most recent work that I've
       been able to find by Kramer. They translate and analyze all of the
       availible myths which include Enki. I've only seen it availible in
       hardcover and I haven't seen it in a bookstore yet.
     * Kramer, Samuel Noah, Sumerian Mythology, Harper & Brothers, New York,
       1961. This slim volume contains much of the mythological material that
       wound up in The Sumerians but concentrated in one spot and without much
       cultural or historical detail. Many of the myths are more developed
       here, some of which are only glossed over in The Sumerians, however in
       some cases The Sumerians holds the more complete or updated myth.
     * Kramer, Samuel Noah The Sumerians The University of Chicago Press,
       Chicago,1963. (This is a more thorough work than Kramer's Section at
       the end of Inanna, but the intervening 20 or so years of additional
       research and translation allow Inanna's section to be perhaps more
       complete, regarding mythology.)
     * Wolkstein, Diane and Kramer, Samuel Noah, Inanna: Queen of Heaven and
       Earth, Harper & Row, NY, 1983. (Ms. Wolkstein's verse translations of
       the Inanna/Dummuzi cycle of myths are excellent, but differ somewhat
       Kramer's originals. Kramer gives a 30 or so page description of
       Sumerian cosmology and society at the end).
     * The New American Bible, Catholic Book Publishing Co., New York, 1970.
       
VIII. Other books of interest

     * Algaze, Guillermo, "The Uruk Expansion", Current Anthropology, Dec.
       1989. This article helped with the introduction material.
     * Hooke, S. H. Middle Eastern Mythology, Penguin Books, New York, 1963.
       This work covers Sumerian, Babylonian, Canaanite/Ugaritic, Hittite, and
       Hebrew mythologic material in brief and with comparisons.
     * Fagan, B. M., People of the Earth, Glenview Il, Scott Forsman, 1989.
       This archaeology text book helped provide some of the introductory
       material.
     * Kramer, Samuel Noah, History Begins at Sumer, University of
       Pennsylvania Press, Philadelphia, 1981. (This text runs through a bunch
       of "firsts" that Kramer attributes to the Sumerians. I only looked at
       it briefly, but it seemed to contain about the same information as was
       in The Sumerians only in a "Wow neat!" format instead of something more
       coherent.)
     * Pritchard J. B., Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old
       Testament, Princeton, 1955. There is also a 1969 edition of this work
       and a companion volume of pictures. It seems to be the authoritative
       source for all complete texts of the Sumerians, Babylonians,
       Canaanites, Hittites, and perhaps other groups as well. It's pricy but
       many libraries have a copy.
     * Stephenson, Neal, Snowcrash, Bantam Books, New York, 1992. Cyberpunk
       meets "Inanna, Enki, and the Me".
     * Wooley, C. Leonard, Excavations at Ur, 1954. This is one of the earlier
       works on the subject, and as such is not as complete as the others
       although it is of historical interest.
       

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